Chapter Eight

Personality and Personal Identity

Personality is a large individual factor which affects many things in our lives due to it influencing our perception of the world, our behaviour, and our baseline emotions and tendencies to be more susceptible to feelings certain types of emotions more than others. Studies which investigate traits affected by, or including personality often take into account the “Big Five”. These five main personality traits incorporate the five dimensions of: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Open-ness(123). Each aspect of personality encompasses many more factors which are specific to that aspect(124). Extraversion encompasses a contended disposition, whilst also being high spirited, affectionate and sociable. Neuroticism can involve being defensive, agitated, self- aware, and acting spontaneously. Agreeableness in people tends to lead a person to be kind and compassionate, trusting, and willing. Conscientiousness suggests personality traits such as efficiency, being disciplined, having good organisation, and Openness suggests a tendency to be inquisitive, artistic, and perceptive(125).

Following, research has investigated into the relationship between personality and emotions, to find whether there is a correlation between personality type and emotion which is likely to be felt in given situations. Findings suggest that extraversion is connected with an individual being more likely to experience positive emotions. Neuroticism on the other hand is more likely to lead a person to generally experience more negative emotions(126,127). Additionally, neurotic personality tendencies in people has been linked to the same individuals perceiving their stress levels to be higher(128). Alternatively Openness interestingly can lead to an increase in both of both positive and negative emotions, depending upon the situation. This is thought to be because a person who is open to new experiences, people and ideas is also more open to be affected by these situations, and therefore their emotions become magnified and heightened by this. Finally, agreeableness and conscientiousness have been positively correlated with an improved sense of wellbeing(129). 

There have been correlations made between the higher frequency of emotions felt during music, and more traits of extraversion and openness in an individual. Neuroticism contrastingly was indicative of experiencing more negative emotions during musical experiences(130). Openness, Agreeableness, and extraversion were all suggestive traits that a person would experience more positive emotions, and conscientiousness also meant that person would generally experience less negative emotions during a listening experience. In regards to openness, Liljeström suggested that people who are open in character and also open minded, recognise the worth in art and are appreciative of it, and therefore it is possible for them to feel positive emotions from this. Additionally, individuals who have a high number of agreeableness traits in their personalities have a higher chance of feeling emotions in a more acute and heightened way during emotional experiences(131), it has been suggested that this is due to these same individuals being able to be more empathetic and understanding. 

Where psychology deals with personality, philosophy is interested in personal identity, how we define who we are, and whether over time we remain the same person, or if our experiences can change us. As we have already come to see, our emotional experiences can create autobiographical memories which become interwoven with our personality, but how do memories mould our personal identity? Do we change Substantially over time, and what does this mean for when we forget?

Beginning, a person who has a strong sense of their own identity is defined by Locke as being “a thinking and intelligent being that has reason and reflection, and can consider itself as itself; the same thinking thing in different times and places”. By this view, Locke understands personal identity to be the “sameness of rational being”, which is both consistent and resistant to influence over time(132). Locke also asserts that for an individual to have a sense of identity, a connection between being a “thinking being” and consciousness must persist; consciousness is essential because “consciousness always accompanies thinking”. Following, an individuals’ sense of self can only be extended as far as their consciousness stretches, and through this, connects to our autobiographical memories.

Also in this same view, Locke states that “as far as consciousness can be extended back to past action and thought, so far reaches the identity of that person; it is the same self now as it was then and it is by the same self in the present that one now reflects on it, that that action was done(133)”.  This theory continues to suggest that if an individual has a memory of an event or experience, then you were the same self then as you are now, as you in both situations share the same memory. However, by this conclusion, he suggests that if you have no memory of an experience, then it follows that you are not the same self as the one which experienced it, and your identity is therefore a different one.

According to Locke then, memory is central to personal identity, and the question follows; if we have evidence of our past self carrying out an action but we can’t remember, who were we if not the same person as today? When destruction of memory occurs and we forget, Locke states "in all these cases when our consciousness is interrupted or we lose sight of our past selves, doubts are raised as to whether we are the same thinking thing(134)”. Again through this theory, memory is an integral component for our personal identity, and without this continuation of consciousness we do not have a persisting self. However, this theory is contested by Perry, who states “that I cannot remember going to the store yesterday does not mean that I did not go. Forgetting, even beyond the possibility of recall, is possible(135)”.

Criticism of this theory also comes from Reid. He forwards that Locke’s theory doesn’t account for “transference”, and writes of the “Brave Officer Paradox'' to demonstrate. He suggests that if a man who has become a military officer has a memory of himself being punished for stealing an enemy’s standard, and this younger man has memory of being punished for taking an apple from an orchard, then through transivity it can be reasoned that the Officer and the young boy are one and the same identity, even though the direct memory of his youth is lost(136). This theory of transivity can be expressed through the axiom that if A=B, and B=C, ∴ C=A. 

Grice forwards a compromising theory which takes into account both Locke’s and Reid’s standpoints. To resolve the question of transivity, Grice suggests the phenomenon; “Total Temporary States”, which he describes as being “composed of all the experiences any one person is having at a given time(137”. Our personal identity therefore, is a collection of these “TTS’s”. Each TTS which belongs to us will hold different memories and emotions attached to them, and be interconnected through this.

This theory is very much in line with Hume’s Bundle Theory, as in this same thought, his theory states that: “man is a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed one another with an inconceivable rapidity and are in perpetual flux and movement(138)". Our feeling of our ‘self’ is therefore a collection of our experiences which is strongly connected to our mind and memory, and subsequently our mind is not an independant power, but a ‘bundle’ of all of these perceptions over time(139).

Music can act as the functioning agent in transivity. where memory is lost, music can provide the connection to our past selves, and activate and connect more areas of the brain by travelling along different neural pathways to allow us to remember, due to emotion associated with and encoded within the music. As we will come to see, this is an important factor, especially when it comes to the role of music therapy.

Continuing, that the mind and the body are two separate entities is a view central to the Dualism theory of Descartes(140). Through this, our material bodies are subject to the laws of nature and carry out physical actions, whilst the mind is capable of much higher functioning and isn’t tied to the same laws(141). However, even though separate, there is still an interconnection between the two which allows for interaction where one can influence the other. 

Kahnman takes this view of Descartes a step further, and forwards that the self in our personal identity is made up of two separate ‘selves’; the experiencing and remembering selves. He further suggests that the decisions we make are based not on our true experiences, but on our interpretation of or experience, and or feelings we have towards this personal story- telling. ‘Decision utility’ and ‘experience utility’ are the two factors which are responsible for us writing our own personal stories instead of remembering the unaltered objectively correct version of the actual experience. We tend to alter our memory by focusing disproportionately on the ending, and allow it to define the overall positive or negative character of the experience(142). 

It therefore follows that due to both decision and experience utility it is possible we can remember a shared experience differently from others, because of our individual involvement and feelings towards the outcomes. We then act accordingly based on our emotions due to our lasting impression of the experience, and make further choices based upon our memory and feeling towards it.

It is interesting to consider that by this theory, it is possible that if we want, we can have choice and influence in who we are as people. Kahneman states that our perception of our personal identity culminates from our internalised memories of ourselves. He proposes that if we harness our ‘remembering self’ we can utilise it for our gain of long- term happiness, if we choose, as we can strengthen our personal identity through consolidation of our memories, choosing to see the positive aspects within them. To experience happiness depends on our engagement with our memories to direct us in our future decisions, if not, we will make decisions in the moment which satisfy our ‘experiencing self’, which has more animalistic and instinctive desires. Whilst this satisfies us in the short term, if left unchallenged, then this passing pleasure becomes greater and more constant than the potential delayed gratification of a decision based on the consideration of our memories. The momentary enjoyment of the outcomes of a decision made by the experiencing self therefore doesn’t allow us lasting happiness as likely, the decision does not support our best interests for the future. 

In contrast to this thought that we have autonomy over our personal happiness and identity, Mill was opposed to the objective of happiness being our “ultimate human goal”. Rather, he advocated for the idea of concentrating on self- realisation and personal freedom, stating; “He who lets the world, or his own portion of it, choose his plan of life for him, has no need of any other faculty than the ape like one of imitation. He who chooses his plan for himself, employs all his faculties. He must use observation to see, reasoning and judgement to foresee, activity to gather material for decision, discrimination to decide, and when he has decided, firmness and self- control to hold his deliberate decision(143)". 

By this thought, it suggests that happiness is therefore not something we should aspire to hold, but rather implies that happiness is a positive by- product for a person who accomplishes self- liberation. In addition to developing a sense of individualism, the person feels more personal value, and subsequently is more capable of being of, and giving value to others(144). 

However illogical it may seem to highlight our differences, when being distinctive and different would suggest to increase separateness between a person and a social group and loosen the bonds within it, by the view of Mill, promoting and growing individual elements of ourselves has the result that our contribution to the same social groups and the larger society can be more impactful by being an individual, which in turn does bring us greater sense of internal happiness and brings the group closer together.

The theory forwarded by Mill that personal identity and individual people having a stronger sense of individuality encourages closer social bonds within a group is supported by Levinson, who suggests that listening to music and our resulting feeling from this also mimics the interpersonal relationships we have. When we have emotional responses such as empathy this is similar to the empathy which we can feel towards other people. Levinson labels this a type of ‘emotional communion’, in that “We are in effect imagining that we are sharing in the precise emotional experience of another human being. Such an experience carries with it the sense of intimate contact with the mind and soul of another, the sense that one is manifestly not alone in the emotional universe(145).” 

Following, Panksepp and Bernatsky state that the ties which listeners of music create between themselves and the music which resounds with them, imitates physiological and neurobiological responses which people experience towards each other(146). 

123- McCrae, Costa, 1987

124- Gosling, 2003

125- Penley, 2002

126- Wilson, Gullone, 1999

127- Watson, Clark, 1992

128- Hemenover, Dienstbier, 1996

129- McCrae, Costa, 1991

130- Liljeström, 2011

131- Ladinig, Schellenberg, 2011

132- Piccirillo, 2010

133- Locke, 1960

134- Locke, 1960

135- Perry, 2008

136- Reid, 2008

137- Grice, 2008

138- Hume, 1964

139- Dicker, 2002

140- Crane, 2001

141- Descartes, 2010

142- Kahneman, 2003

143- Mill, 2010

144- Mill, 2010

145- Levinson, 2004

146- Panksepp, Bernatzky, 2002