Chapter Five

Music as Emotional Exressivity: How Can Music Be Seen as Expressive?

Emotion is induced due to many different mechanisms within us coordinating on both physiological and neurological levels. As we have seen, emotional state can be expressed to others through the innate reflexive vocalisation, and language of an individual in many subtle ways. Following, this can strongly suggest that if we can harness this, there are as many subtle ways in which we can influence emotion through the use of vocalisation, and subsequently music, and if we know the basis for this(64). But first, exactly how good are we at determining expressed emotion through vocalisation? 

In recent studies, the capability of listeners to accurately identify and connect an emotion with a voice a speaker is expressing has been considered. Emotional states are portrayed often by a voice actor whilst reciting the alphabet or numbers for example. Scherer created a meta- analysis of these studies, and found the accuracy of listeners identifying the voiced emotion with the correct emotional state to be that of 60%, but this figure differed slightly across different emotions. Anger and sadness were the most accurately recognised, fear and happiness close behind. It is interesting to note that these four emotions account for our “basic emotions”, and are very distinct from other types; almost simplified to make their expression easier(65). 

Subsequently, if listeners the majority of the time can accurately identify conveyed emotion in the voice, it follows that we should be able to establish precise determining factors we identify with, and and are receptive to for emotional understanding. Let’s look at this, and how this applies to music. 

Emotional expression in speech and vocal music can be likened to that of instrumental playing, particularly wind instruments where breathing is a natural part of phrasing, and phrases are structured in a sentence- like way. Breathing and respiration, articulation and tone are all affected by the performers genuine underlying emotional state, and even if the performer is attempting to portray a positive and joyous character, if the performer feels anger or sadness for example, this will be embodied by them physiologically, and through their performance, their true emotions may be able to be heard(66).

To demonstrate this, Scherer and Oshinsky investigated into the cues which we attend to when listening to speech and music, including: the varying volume, changes in pitch, vocal contouring, tonality, melodicism, and harmonic richness. Additionally, they also investigated into our judgment in correctly selecting the inferred emotion within sentence- like melodies, by varying several fundamental parts of these musical melodies electronically using a synthesiser. The reproduced table shows the findings of the emotional effects due to varying musical aspects from this study.

Table 1(67)

From all of the aspects studied, the range in fundamental frequency had the strongest effect on listener judgement, as when this variety was low, accuracy in results decreased significantly. A small range in pitch was understood as being sad due to its limited expressiveness in this sense, or having a sense of indifference. Melodies containing a wide range were understood as the music itself containing high arousal, which as a consequence induced feelings of annoyance and irritation in listeners. Additionally, a fast tempo was associated with feelings of happiness, whilst slower tempos indicated sadness(68). 

Anger has been found to be expressed vocally by the intensity, dynamics, and fundamental pitch all increasing. In studies where the type of anger is accounted for; hot or cold anger, it is found that the fundamental pitch is less stable and varies a lot whilst expressing hot anger. Also, in all types of anger, it is found that articulation becomes clearer, as the speaker feels very strongly in their emotion, and uses their speech to reflect this(69). 

Fear induces a higher fundamental pitch, and vocally contains many high frequencies. Additionally, the rate of articulation increases; we talk faster and our sentences phrase upwards. This also leads to the correlation between fear and anxiety; when we or music expresses anxiety or fear, we express this through short and sharp units of high frequency expression, which are designed to communicate urgency(70). 

Sadness is expressed in almost a polarising manner, fundamental pitch and range decrease, and pitch and the fundamentals in the sound or vocal phrases downwards. The rate of articulation decreases, as what we do not try to express our emotion in an urgent way, and subsequently do not try to react to or move away from sadness in the same way as fear, it is more likely to be long- lasting. 

In concurrence with these findings, Kotlyar and Morozov researched into the way in which singers portray joy, sadness, and and fear within music, and analysed their findings. Their results were able to show that a fast tempo usually was connected with fear whilst sadness exhibited itself through a slow tempo, and a higher pitch range was found to be expressive of anger. Additionally, other components of music such as clear articulation were instinctively used to convey strong emotions such as happiness and anger more than for other emotions, and larger gaps between syllables was indicative of fear(71). 

Another similar study where aspects of musical phrases were altered to measure their effect on emotional experience, is one conducted by Hevner. Although an early study, conducted in 1935, the results are still valid in reflecting how music can be employed to influence our emotional response. Initially, she performed short piano pieces for listeners, and then proceeded to adapt one element of music at a time, such as playing in a major or minor key, rhythm, tempo, or complexity of the harmonies. During each rendition all other elements were held as honestly as possible to the original. After each adaptation, the listeners were asked to report their feelings for the piece, and from a pre- set list of descriptive emotions, choose which one best fitted the version. It was found that tempo and mode were the strongest influencers of emotional interpretation of a piece; versions of a major piece played quickly were described as happy, and minor pieces when played at a slow tempo were thought to be dreamy and melancholy(72).

However, this kind of study demonstrates how receptive we are to understanding communicated emotions through music, but is not attentive to the emotions we as listeners actually experience. Despite this, studies such as these can still have value in demonstrating inter- connections and understanding of things which are external to ourselves. Even if the listenerdoesn’t necessarily feel the same emotion the piece expresses through contagion, demonstrated is an ability to understand and connect, which can be useful to acknowledge in therapy settings for example.

So, through these all these findings so far, we come to the conclusion that we interpret musical communication in much the same way as communication in speech due to music not only being capable of emotional communication, but it actually being a developed and highly sophisticated form of communication, which we arrived at through the voice and have applied to other forms of music as this developed over time. Additionally, over time, musical compositions have become incredibly complex constructions, which over the course of hours in some cases, take us through many melodic, rhythmic, timbral and harmonic transitions. Willimek has created a comprehensive theory of how these harmonies affect our emotions directly.

The Strebetendenz Theory, or theory of Musical Equilibration forwarded by Bernd Willimek connects the emotional effects of music to fundamental features of the music itself; namely harmony, and uses this to suggest that the underlying psychology of musical harmony is directly transferable and affecting of the psychology of our emotions. Harmony is special, as within a few seconds it can convey what other musical functions take more time to expose; therefore it is more potent. This theory depicts the musically encoded emotional character of harmony, and demonstrates its’ ability for creating emotional change within us(73). 

Strebetendenz can be translated as the “tendency to strive”. It describes a strong internal will for the music to resolve, and any tension to be released(74). Equilibration is a term itself loaded with the suggestion of change. Equilibration is to balance old ideas with new ones, and resultantly alter our views and perceptions, and potentially further actions as a consequence(75).

In his book musikpsychologie, Kurth (whos’ theory Willimek builds upon) suggests that before we begin interpreting music and musical harmonies, before we even identify it as music we first physically experience the sensation, and interpret its meaning through feeling. However, Willimek contends this and suggests that we do not associate emotion with music simply through our instinctive feeling, but our resulting emotions are based largely on our desires for the music, and our will. Willimek’s resulting Theory of Musical Equilibration describes the emotional character of harmonies, and also furthers this by suggesting their emotional impact on us(76). 

Meyer, also speaking of our will, suggested that expectations are built up through aspects of applied music theory, such as directional rhythms, melody line or harmonic structure. The anticipation which the listener has for certain directions the music should take, and subsequently determines the course of musical emotions. However, the music may or may not reward us with the desired emotions, as it doesn’t fulfill our expectations. This leads to a more intense build up as tension and suspension mounts, but ultimately is more rewarding when our desire for musical resolution is fulfilled, and our will towards emotional resolution is also rewarded. Where the music resolves, so is our will and wanting, and relaxation can take place as we no longer have a desire(77). 

The theory behind our will and desire for us wanting to hear the music resolved is as such; when we hear a leading note which is suggestive of harmonic progression, as listeners, we are aware that this is causing a dissonance and conflict of ideas, which leads to and increases our desire for things to change. This awareness is subconscious however, and therefore we are also not consciously aware of our desire for change due to the leading note, or see it as a factor which causes this discomfort. Instead, we instinctively feel that the resolution to this mild subconscious feeling of tension that needs to be resolved, is to keep hearing the leading note, and for the harmonies to reconstruct themselves around it, to lead away from tension, and towards relaxation(78).

Additionally, this theory also suggests that it is possible there is an internal translation from musical tones to the condition of emotion, due to both music and emotion not being of the material world. When we hear music, we recognise it almost as extra-ordinary, or almost ambiguous in nature; (there are many aesthetic debates as to what music actually is) and we also feel similarly about emotions. It is this similarity in immateriality which allows music to be experienced on an emotional level, and even though music and emotion are in some sense indeterminable, we often desire more(79). 

An extensive compilation of types of chords and their corresponding emotional attributes has been collated by Willimek(80):

Major Tonic: fulfillment and contentment,

Minor Tonic: discontentment, or implies grief when played at a low dynamic, whilst a louder dynamic contains anger,

Natural Minor: Courage, tension, danger,

Dominant: motion, freedom, ambition,

Seventh Chord: protest, struggle, resistance, or weakness,

Secondary Dominant: Disappointment, or being emotionally “moved”,

Major Subdominant: Cheerful, joyful, victorious, satisfied,

Major Subdominant plus Major Seventh: As the subdominant, although with a bittersweetness, a finality or longing, appreciation for happiness being temporary,

Major Chord plus Sixth: comforting, warm, love,

Minor Chord plus Sixth: loneliness, heartbreak, separation,

Neapolitan Sixth: painfulness, farewell, abandonment, finality,

Diminished Seventh: fear, panic, despair, melancholy,

Augmented Chord: astonishment, surprise, transformation,

Whole Tone Scale: weightlessness, dream- like,

Minor Sixth: danger, threat, fear,

Major Tonic Chords

“The tonic can be symbolically represented by a person standing upright in life(81)”

Güldenstein characterised the major tonic chord as one which had the feeling that made the listener aware of their own will, when we hear it we become momentarily aware of ourselves, have almost no desire for anything to change, and through this we are content in the present moment. “The tonic can be symbolically represented by a person standing upright in life. He is at rest as long as he is not moving, yet he is under tension in that he must constantly overcome a sensation of heaviness(82)”.

By Willimek’s theory, when we hear a major tonic chord, we don’t have a strong desire for anything to change, as there is very little tension or dissatisfaction within the sounding structure; we are content(83). Therefore by this, a major tonic chord is so often used to represent and contribute to a joyful and content emotional profile within a composition.

If major tonic chords are happy and content, and can make us feel this way too, how then do minor chords sound sad and discontent? Willimek forwards the suggestion that the emotional qualities in a minor chord can be likened to a person saying the words “no more”. Quietly, this phrase would come across very melancholy, and would be very impressionable on a listener as they would feel empathy with this, however, if a person were to shout these same words, they would convey a feeling of anger. This analogy can be directly applied to the minor chord, andthose harmonies which can initially begin with sadness, through faster tempos and louder dynamics can quickly transform into anger(84).

When we apply the theory of musical equilibration to the minor chord then. The minor chord, when we see it as a “suppressed major chord(85)”, we can understand it as a major chord which has had it’s leading note tension removed. If within a major chord we feel content, at ease and little tension, this major chord now becomes suppressed, and this feeling of contentedness now turns to discontent, as tension builds again, and we look for change.

Additionally, from a performance practice standpoint, the techniques and skills a musician utilises which are available to them through their instruments can have a great effect on the execution of delivering music with emotion, meaning and purpose behind it. 

64- Scherer, 1993

65- Scherer, 1981

66- Heimoltz, 1954

67- Scherer, 1977

68- Scherer, 1977

69- Scherer, 1984

70- Scherer, 1984

71- Kotlyar, 1976

72- Hevner, 1935

73- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

74- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

75- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

76- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

77- Meyer, 1956

78- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

79- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

80- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

81- Güldenstein, 1973

82- Güldenstein, 1973

83- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

84- Willimek, Willimek, 2013

85- Herzfeld, 1965