Lullabies are an ancient aural form that appears cross-culturally, forming a rich and an intangible heritage of world cultures. Their social function is to put children to sleep, more specifically related to the notion of falling asleep. As a part of folk culture in Serbia, lullabies have a repetitive form, narrow tonal ranges, and belong to a special genre of lyric songs passed usually from mother to daughter. Their form is in-between speech, rhythmic speech, and singing. Popović (2020) notes similarities between learning of mother tongue and listening to the first melodies as a form of language that stays in a long-term memory permanently. According to this author, putting the baby to sleep is the closest contact between mother and child, the most intimate moment in which she, humming with emphasized emotions, can express her tenderness and warmth, her care and protective relationship (Popović, 2020, p. 124). Aside from the soothing effect, and lulling a child to sleep, all tender processes of an infant’s adaptation and change can be observed from a point of a constant initiation, or transitioning (Pešikan Lj, 2013). Historically, one of the oldest functions of lullabies was apotropaic – singing served to protect the infants from evil spirits through the use of words related to blessings and magic (Pešikan Lj, 2013), as the very power and fear of dreams and their content goes far back in history, later forming a practice of ‘reading a dream’ or reinterpretation of it by relying on the knowledge of the elders (Brković, 2020). Along with lullabies stemming from personal memories and experiences, lullabies can also be a part of a wider collective or family-based heritage, with many examples of generations who have sung and listened to them. Pešikan examines a temporal dimension of lullabies, whose lyrics often portray the past and present actions as well as anticipate the future (Pešikan Ljuštanović, 2013). The following Serbian lullaby clearly illustrates that stance: Duško mi se u gori rodio, u gorici đe se legu vuci, Vučica mu i babica bila, B’jela vila ml’jekom zadojila [My Duško was born in the mountain, in the mountain where the wolves are bred, the wolf was his midwife, while the white fairy nursed him with milk] – the past is seen here through building the present moment with the magical helpers (a beast, a fairy). A metaphor of shaping the future can be observed in the example of a blessing that will affect a future marriage: Da mi dete bude tanko i visoko, da mu dete bude belo i crveno, [for my child to be thin and tall, for my child to be fair and rosy] (Pešikan Ljuštanović, 2013. p.322).[1] Sikimić points out that texts and rhythms of Slavic lullabies can structurally be so versatile that the songs can also be placed in other folk song genres such as love, family, funny, dance and other (Sikimić, 2011). Moreover, according to Pešikan Lj. (2011) the method and the context of interpretation defines such lullabies.
Folk lullabies are an important form of children’s folklore and bedtime rituals known before the impact of contemporary sound-recording technology, in which children’s prayers were also known to South Slavic people (Sikimić, 2013). In addition to Vuk Stefanović Karadžić’s immense work on gathering the epic poetry, as discussed in the chapter on gusle history, he was also the first one who collected lullabies in Serbia. Karadžić published the first twelve lullabies in the book Serbian folk songs in 1841 (Vujanović, 2016. p.11). Among many lullabies mentioned, including those in his later publications, there are very interesting lullabies with the epic decasyllabic verse structure portraying moment between mother and son (Vujanović, 2016). The information on whether these lyrics were ever sung with the gusle accompaniment are not sufficient. After Karadžić, numerous folklorists, ethnologists and ethnomusicologists in the Balkans such as Ludvig Kuba, Franjo Kuhač, Miodrag Vasiljević (Popović, 2020), Pavle Rovinski, , Dimitrije Golemović and others have conducted research on folk lullabies.
[1] The attributes of being tall, white, and rosy are typical descriptions of young women and brides in Serbian folk poetry.
New, modern lullabies in Serbia started to circulate during the 20th century after the world wars. The socialism in former Yugoslavia brought a new wave of children’s culture through engaging various writers, composers and directors in order to create content specifically for children. Such work was disseminated through books, TV and radio shows for children such as TV show Na slovo na slovo [Letter by letter], Laku noć deco [Good night children], children’s choirs such as Kolibri and many others. According to the latest research on the topic of children’s contemporary culture (2020) in which 302 Serbian preschool teachers participated in relation to the use of lullabies in the curriculum, one of the most known contemporary lullabies are Jednog zelenog dana [On one green day], Majka Jovu u ruži rodila [Mother gave birth to Jova in the rose], Laku noć deco [Good night, children], Zemlja snova [A lend of dreams], and others (Kostić & Purić, 2020). This research confirms that along with contemporary lullabies used in the educational processes, some folk lullabies have been used too, as well as the songs similar to lullabies, but belonging to other genres of children songs, such as Leptiriću šareniću [My colourful butterfly], Mali konjanik [Little horseman], Mali div [Little Giant], Nova radost [New Joy] (Kostić & Purić, 2020). Nevertheless, in the curriculum that they have implemented, educators also used some newly composed songs that they created themselves (Kostić & Purić, 2020). The study on the use of lullabies in preschool education shows that more than 70% of lullabies played to children were those of vocal-instrumental structure, above 25% a cappella, and a little above 4% belonging to a pure instrumental performance. Nevertheless, change to contemporary digital medium such as CDs and later, YouTube, is something that profoundly marks the contemporary transmission of lullabies (Kostić and Purić, 2020). A final outcome of the study in Serbia about preschool teachers points out need for future endeavours in strengthening early education practitioners and children, by a better connection between practical and research studies, a need for systematic support by cultural policies and in choosing a curriculum in relation to lullabies implementation (Kostić and Purić, 2020). Lastly, there is a need for a more diverse variety of lullabies in working with preschool children in order to attain a more stimulating environment, as number of well-known lullabies to contemporary scholars is only eleven, of which three were the most used (Kostić and Purić, 2020).
In terms of the global research on this topic, it seems that there is a wide range of interest in lullabies. African imilolozelo lullabies, a part of Zulu children’s aural tradition, promote a unique method and environment to children’s upbringing, as a form of imfundiso, which is an informal home-based cultural education. The significance of imfundiso is seen to be introduced to children much earlier than imfundo, Western-centred knowledge and practice (Danisile, 2013, p.13). In their interpretation, lullabies are a source of direct and indirect communication (p.18), knowledge on socialization, physical development (p.15) but also have a holistic dimension (p.21). Performative aspects of Zulu’s imilolozelolullabies gradually transition towards more complex forms of performances following infants’ growth, through play songs, that further invite cross-generational participation and offer a continuum through a dynamic approach of the tradition:
Sometimes, noise-making objects are tied around a child's ankles so that they will make a sound when she/he is walking. The noise that is made by these things makes the child continue walking until at times it will seem as if she/he is attempting a traditional dance on the same spot and eventually, she/he will end up performing a traditional dance (Madzidzela as cited in Danisile, 2013, p.21).
Aside from children’s tendencies to mirror what they see, Danisile wrote on the continuum of the aural transmission of imilolozelo from child to child (Fraser in Cynthia, 2013, p.15). On the other side, according to study of Portuguese lullabies that involved eighty-four women and a total of seventy songs (Vicente at al. 2020, p.328), 54,8% of mothers still use lullabies when putting babies to sleep. Among 71.8% of the mothers had someone in their childhood that sung lullabies to them, nevertheless, 87.9% of lullabies transmission is present through maternal lineage (2020, p.338). This study, based on identifying maternal unconscious fantasies in lullabies used in contemporary settings resulted in five common categories. These are Introduction of the Idealized Good Object (51.20%), such as appearance of shiny stars in lullabies in diminishing fear of darkness,Introduction of the Bad Object (23.20%) such as fearful characters as reference to Bogeyman who eats small children (p. 337), Holy child (12.00%) as reference to the Holy family, Emergence of sexuality (8.00%) with scenes alluding on sexuality, and Introduction to the Third Party (5.60%) such as the introduction of mothers work or infants relatives (2020, p. 338). Nevertheless, 82.9% of contemporary Portuguese lullabies examined in that research were profane while 17.1% were religious in nature, which is the main difference in later comparison to traditional Portuguese lullabies in which religious motifs were marked in 55.43% (Vicente at al. 2020) which suggests that significant drop of religious motifs reflects lullaby’s adaptation to more flexible views on modern Western family structures (Vicente at al. 2020). Lastly, this research shows interesting observation through acknowledging that longing and melancholic traditional fado music did not influence today’s lullabies in a scale marked by previous researchers in the past (Vicente at al. 2020). Much research has been done on the effects music therapy has on physical and emotional regulation, among which lullabies were examined. Research published by New York Academy of Science undertaken by NICU (Neonatal intensive care unit) shows that parent selected lullabies, known as songs of kin, function net positively in supporting health treatment, and healing processes of their children. Furthermore, the effect is even greater when lullabies are sung live by their parents. Nevertheless, the very voice, and even repeated lullaby by parents serves as continuation of familiar sonic spectrum deriving from the infant-womb period that further serves as calming effect (Loewy, 2014). This study shows that the exposure to lullabies increases the percentage of deep sleep, oxygen level and better supports the breathing patterns, increases level of calorie intake, decreases heart rates of the infants, as well as parental stress (Loewy, 2014). Effects of lullabies on the psychological and neurological function can be assessed also throughout pregnancy (Loewy, 2014). Research done in Sweden in 2017 shows that live usage of lullabies drastically reduces infant’s procedural pain (Ullsten at al. 2017). Evolving lullaby practice of Australian children was examined through modern day technologies, screen media and audio-visual interpretation, YouTube, mobile apps, television, musical toys, and books that continue to change the way this practice is shaped and transmitted. Although the study shows that parents still sing to their children and that there is an advantage in that, as the parent reads the infant’s signals and adapts the musical performance until it stimulates the desired response (Brooks, 2016), lullabies through new media are seen as reaching a greater audience and building a larger repertoire. Some of the features of lullabies stemming from new media is the length, in some cases lasting up to several hours (p.87), often departing from traditional lullabies with inclusion of progressive approach in aesthetics, arrangements, instruments used, that can to some degree represent other children music genres. Furthermore, there is an inclusion of different performances such as by male singers and players or others, generic rather than personal lyrics (Brooks, 2016). According to this study conducted in Australia, a significant difference in using these fixed lullabies is a change in their function, where lullabies are used as a routine before bed or sleep, identified as settling, rather than lulling to sleep (Brooks, p.94). Nevertheless, according to Brooks (2016), although parents expand their lullaby repertoire through the new media, the role of the digitized content is seen as replacing traditional lullabies in Australian households. Moreover, consumption, marketing and profit side of those media can affect parents being less involved in crucial bonding time prior to sleep (Brooks, 2016). Yet, according to Young (2008), exposure of infants, and today’s children to digitalized sounds starts even before the birth, and as such represents an inevitable sonic norm and reality to young generations, that consequently should result in radically reconfiguring musical childhoods (Young, 2008, p.34). Furthermore, Young (2008) reflects on Gottlieb’s (2004) findings that in recent decades children are encouraged to sleep alone, where new ways of practicing lullabies can support that narrative. Nevertheless, as Young (2008) researched UK infants and toddlers’ music, specifically targeting the mothers of diverse backgrounds, the results show that popular media, and toys greatly exclude cultural, and ethnic variety, while centring on the melodies of Euro-American origin or similarity. On the other hand, through India’s perspective, in terms of new media transmission and introduction of contemporary sound cultures, many lullabies are taken from Bollywood movies (Pathak & Mishra, 2017). However, the transmission of lullabies from parents or grandparents to children is not threatened by media consumption as much as by rapid economic challenges that lead to children spending much more time with caregivers (Singh & Hoge as cited in Pathak & Mishra, 2017). And lastly, among other views the global scholarship takes on lullabies, seeing them as a vehicle for community engagement and/or art repertoire is a frequent conclusion in cross-cultural and comparative terms. Jacobi Medical Center (NYC) and Carnegie Hall’s Musical Connections team project, resulted in pilot implementation of innovative model developed to support vulnerable groups through community-based music creation in United Kingdom in 2017 (Ascenso, 2021, p.1-2). Lullaby music making in collaboration with Royal Philharmonic Orchestra that included refugee mothers and, on the other side, fathers from a central London prison, showed great results in improving the wellbeing of vulnerable groups, such as the increased feelings of autonomy, and personal growth, accomplishment, sense of purpose, direction of life, positive emotions, sense of connectedness, increased empathy (p.7), richer perspective, and positive coping mechanisms (Ascenso, 2021, p.9). Amazing, it’s very touching! When I got back to the cell, I was feeling I have done something right for the right reason... [...] I could just always remember the smile of my little man... Richard. (Ascenso, 2021, p.5). A space specifically crafted for self-expression of participants followed by mentorship of professionals, fostered dialogue and diversity, social nurturing, and agency, with a final output in a form of a CD allowing for the experience to outlive the project duration (Ascenso, 2021, p.11). In addition to that, Scroggins (2021) examines lullabies as art songs in classical performances of piano over centuries that proves their greater expansion and change, which shows a different path of lullabies, not only being connected to motherhood and soothing effects but also amplifying opposite textures (Scroggins, 2021, p.110).
