Figure 9. "John Coltrane - The 1950's", 2019, by New York Times (https://www.wmky.org/arts-culture/2019-08-26/john-coltrane-the-1950s)
Figure 5. "Amaradeva strumming the mando-harp”, 2013, by Lalith Rathnayake. https://roar.media/english/life/culture-identities/pandit-amaradeva-a-life-in-music
Miles Davis, the renowned American jazz trumpeter, composer, and bandleader, significantly impacted
the integrating of Indian classical music into jazz. One notable example of this influence is his
experimentation with raga scales in his music. Davis first became interested in Indian classical music
during the late 1950s and early 1960s when he was exploring new directions in his music. In 1958, he
was introduced to the music of sitar virtuoso Ravi Shankar which sparked his interest in Indian classical
music (Aceves, 2021).
Davis began experimenting with Indian classical music in his compositions, incorporating elements of
raga scales and other Indian musical concepts into his jazz compositions. One notable example is his
1970 album "Bitches Brew," which featured a fusion of jazz and Indian classical music with elements of
raga scales and improvisation. Davis' use of raga scales was not limited to his compositions, as
he incorporated them into his interpretations of jazz standards (Tingen, 2021). Miles Davis significantly
impacted the integration of raga scales into jazz music. His experimentation with Indian classical music
in his compositions and his interpretations of jazz standards helped open up new possibilities for jazz
musicians. In addition, it inspired a new generation of musicians to explore the intersection of jazz and
world music.
The three texts discuss the influence of Indian classical music, particularly raga scales, on jazz music
through the work of John Coltrane, John McLaughlin, and Miles Davis. All three musicians were exposed
to Indian classical music through the teachings of Ravi Shankar, which sparked their interest in
incorporating non-Western musical elements into their work. Coltrane’s interest in Indian classical music
and spirituality led him to integrate non-Western scales and modes into his compositions, showcased in
his most celebrated work, “A Love Supreme.” McLaughlin’s fusion of jazz, rock, and Indian classical
music with raga scales helped create a unique sound that inspired many other musicians to follow in his
footsteps. Miles Davis’ experimentation with raga scales in his music, both in his compositions
and interpretations of jazz standards, opened up new possibilities for jazz musicians and inspired a new
generation of musicians to explore the intersection of jazz and world music. The influence of Indian
classical music, particularly raga scales, on jazz music, has been significant, inspiring musicians to
explore new sonic possibilities and expand the boundaries of their musical genres. In addition,
incorporating non-Western musical elements into jazz has helped showcase the universal nature of
music and transcend cultural and geographical boundaries. The work of Coltrane, McLaughlin, and
Davis has played a crucial role in this integration and has had a lasting impact on the world of music,
inspiring generations of musicians to incorporate non-Western musical elements into their work.
This thesis examines my compositional practice and its development of a signature sound based on the
Bhairav raga and Bhairavi raga. As a pianist and arranger, I set out to create an artistic work with this
melodic framework for improvisation. To understand how I have achieved this, this text explores the
artistic development process and its combination of scientific, artistic, and creative practices. As a result,
this thesis looks to elucidate how I have cultivated my personal compositional style and generated art
with the Bhairav raga and Bhairavi raga.
The origins of the Sinhala light music genre, referred to as "Sarala gee," were heavily influenced by
Sinhala folk music. According to Jayasuriya (2020, p.97), most Sinhala phonograph songs from 1906 to
1930 were nurthi gee (theatrical music). Furthermore, The Wonderful History of Sri Lankan Music (2021)
states that Sarala gee originated in India and was brought back to Sri Lanka by artists who attempted to
put their spin on it. Indian ragas highly influence Sri Lankan folk music. During the 1940s, three
renowned Sri Lankan artists—Pandith Amaradeva, Ananda Samarakoon, and Sunil Santha—were the
pioneers of the new Sinhalese popular music and were responsible for creating the genre.
Pandith Amaradeva has been acknowledged as the most influential of the three. Sarala gee was created
before the independence of Sri Lanka from British colonial rule. Sinhalese bourgeoisie nationalists
embraced it as a suitable form of self-expression due to its incorporation of indigenous folk customs and
foreign concepts. (Jayasuriya, 2020, p.2)
It is particularly intriguing how Sri Lankans venture to India to acquire knowledge of the ragas and
attempt to fashion their unique interpretations of the musical forms. This demonstrates the extent to
which I have been influenced by raga and is attempting to give it a Nordic jazz twist by merging the two
genres.
The origins of Indian classical music can be traced back to the Vedic period, circa 1500 BCE. Music was
an integral aspect of the Vedic culture, with the belief that it was divinely inspired and could evoke
spiritual and emotional states (The Times of India, 2016). Raga is a term that has been used in Indian
classical music for centuries to refer to a melodic framework used for improvisation and composition.
The roots of raga can be traced back to ancient Hindu scriptures, particularly the Samaveda, which
contains hymns sung in particular melodic modes or scales. This ancient Indian tradition has been
preserved and passed down through generations and remains a vital part of Indian classical music
today (Chaudhary, 2021).
In the article "Raga" (Nettl, 2022), the playing mode known as raga, which is also referred to as
"passion" or "color," is discussed. This mode is primarily used for improvisation and playing melodious
tunes. Furthermore, Bruno Nettl explains that a raga is premised on a scale with a fixed collection of
notes, a predetermined order in which they appear in melodies, and predetermined musical patterns.
The essential components of a raga can be described by a scale that ascends and descends. The
instrumentalist endeavors to create a feeling or atmosphere by using particular notes, emphasizing
certain scale degrees, and traveling from note to note. Jairazbhoy defines raga has no equivalent in
Western musical theory; however, the concept of rag is underpinned by the notion that a particular
pattern of notes can generate an emotionally heightened state. Furthermore, these patterns of notes
represent a combination of scalar and melodic elements, which can be broken down into their ascending
and descending lines and their distinctive melodic figures in which certain intervals are highlighted, and
attention is drawn to specific notes (Jairazbhoy,1971, p.28).
Similar to Western classical music, it divides an octave into twelve semitones, and the seven primary
notes are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, in that order, which are the equivalent of Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La,
Ti, respectively. Despite the prevalence of the equal-temperament tuning system in modern Western
classical music, it is worth noting that just intonation tuning is also employed. Just intonation tuning is a
system that assigns frequency ratios to the intervals of a musical scale rather than giving a single
frequency to each note (Pratyush, 2010, p.2).
Ragas are melodic forms with strict limitations based on particular thaats, or "parent scales." These
parent scales range from pentatonic, hexatonic, to septatonic and can have up to three departures from
the parent scale. Furthermore, the rules for ascending and descending notes accentuate the raga. The
potential for ragas is practically limitless, with researchers calculating that each of the seventy-two
primary scales of Indian music, with all their variations, could produce hundreds of distinct patterns or
combinations. Obedience to the ascending and descending principles, known as the Raga Performance,
is an essential and prescribed improvisational art form that can be identified via its unavoidable
variety. Although some ragas may be similar in their ascending and descending shape and their
thaat, the fundamental difference distinguishing them is their handling of sruti or microtones (Rohm,
2017, p. 25-26).
The concept of parental scales is present in both Indian classical music and Western music. However,
the application and use of these scales differ significantly between the two traditions. In Indian classical
music, the parental scales are used as a starting point for improvisation and composition. In contrast, in
Western music, the modes are often used as a tool for harmony and chord progression. Overall, parental
scales are an important aspect of both Indian classical music and Western music, serving as a
foundation for creating and interpreting countless musical compositions.
The structural composition of raga music is markedly dissimilar from the compositional framework
employed in Western classical music. While the former relies on improvisation and specific scales,
modes, and melodic patterns, the latter relies on a more established structure that utilizes pre defined
harmonic progressions, rhythmic patterns, and melodic motifs. Consequently, the overall composition
approach between the two music styles is markedly different (Rohm, 2017, p. 38).
The performance of a raga typically follows a structured format comprised of several distinct sections,
including the alap, jor, jhala, and gat. However, it is important to note that some of these sections may be
omitted, resulting in a performance that consists solely of an alap and a gat or Bhajan. Furthermore,
raga performances can vary significantly, sometimes lasting up to five or more hours (Nettl, 2022).
Ragas is a fundamental component of Hindustani classical music, traditionally performed on instruments
such as the sitar, sarod, and tabla. A typical raga performance usually commences with an unhurried
and meditative segment known as "alap,” The alap is an improvised section at the beginning of the
performance, where the musician explores the ragas and notes their relationships slowly and
deliberately. It is an opportunity for the musician to establish the raga's mood and character and to
connect with the audience (Cohoon, 2012, p. 28).
The Jor is a crucial part of a Raga performance, wherein the musician introduces a
rhythmic accompaniment, typically accompanied by a percussion instrument such as a tabla. The
Jor builds upon the melodic and rhythmical concepts established in the Alap, adding further complexity
and depth to the performance. Doing so takes the piece to a new level, furthering the overall quality and
impact of the performance (p.76).
In the context of raga, three fundamental components can be identified: melody, drone, and rhythm. The
melody, comprised of specific notes within a particular raga, can be either vocalized or played through
an instrument, such as the sitar or sarod. The drone is an accompanying element that provides a
continuous, sustained sound typically created by a tambura. Finally, the rhythm consists of a cyclical and
repetitive pattern of beats generated through tabla drums. These three essential elements of raga
provide a basis for the creation and performance of this style of music.
The book Hindustani Music (2019) states that the raga has undergone significant transformation
throughout its history, yet its fundamental qualities have been consistently maintained. A central tenet of
a raga is that it should engender a sense of aesthetic pleasure in the listener's mind. Although a
musician has substantial autonomy when performing a Raga, one must remain faithful to its fundamental
principles and characteristics. Renowned musicologists of India have passed down these features of the
Raga and continue to be observed by practitioners of Indian classical music (National Institute of Open
Schooling, 2019, p. 15), such as:
The elements of raga, namely Tala, melodic modes, improvisation, Vadi Svara, and ornamentation, can
offer valuable insights into contemporary compositions. These elements can provide a new perspective
on the construction and performance of music, especially when combined with other musical traditions.
For example, by incorporating Tala into contemporary music, performers can create a rhythmic structure
that is unique to Indian classical music while also adding a new dimension to the composition. Melodic
modes can add a distinct character and mood to the music, while improvisation can encourage
creative exploration and development of musical ideas within the framework of the composition.
Additionally, using Vadi Svara can help define and enhance the melodic line of the composition, while
ornamentation can add expressive and emotional qualities to the music. Therefore, understanding the
elements of raga and how they can be incorporated into contemporary compositions can provide new
avenues for exploration and innovation in music creation.
The musicians' eagerness to draw on elements from various international musical styles is critical to jazz's
evolution. By assimilating components from diverse musical genres, jazz has developed and expanded,
incorporating new and varied sounds into its unique soundscape. This phenomenon has enabled jazz to
become one of the last century's most influential and enduring musical genres. For example, in Jazz, Ragas
are frequently utilized as a stimulus for melodic inspiration, with performers assimilating components of the
raga into their improvisations and compositions. This could include exploiting particular scales and
modes connected to the raga and integrating characteristic melodic phrases and ornamentation
(Ivory Research, 2019).
The album titles of John Coltrane, namely "A Love Supreme," "Ascension," "Selflessness," and
"Meditations," embody the imagery and concepts found in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Apart from
signifying the influence of Indian classical music on Western jazz, these titles also represent the
exploration of non-Western religious and mystical traditions in jazz music. The unifying theme of these
albums is a recurring motif, emphasizing Coltrane's integration of non-Western musical elements in his
compositions. In the track "Psalm," for instance, Coltrane employs a drone sound and a structural
organization that allows for exploring the various combinations of a limited range of notes. This motif
recurs throughout the piece, serving as a unifying theme (Clements, 2009, pp. 159-161).
Coltrane's integration of Indian classical music and raga scales into his music was groundbreaking and
helped to expand the boundaries of jazz and other genres. His explorations of non-Western scales and
modes opened up new sonic possibilities and showcased the universal nature of music, transcending
cultural and geographical boundaries. Coltrane's innovative use of Indian classical music has had a
lasting impact on the world, inspiring generations of musicians to incorporate non-Western musical
elements into their work.
John McLaughlin is a highly influential guitarist and
composer widely regarded as one of the pioneers of
fusion music. This genre combines elements of jazz,
rock, and Indian classical music (Britannica, 2023).
McLaughlin's interest in Indian classical music,
particularly in raga scales, has profoundly influenced
his music and helped shape the direction of fusion
music.
The Jhala is the concluding section of a Raga performance, whereby the musician increases the tempo
and intensity of the music, delving into complicated rhythmic patterns and rapid melodic phrases. This
section is typically characterized by its virtuosity and electrifying nature and serves as an exciting finale
to the presentation.
The Gat is a composed piece of music, typically in a specific rhythmic cycle (tala), commonly performed
or sung after the Alap, Jor, and Jhala sections. The Gat generally consists of a set of predetermined
lyrics and melody. However, it also permits improvisation and ornamentation.
The bandish is a composed section of the performance that follows the alap and consists of a structured
melody with a fixed rhythm and lyrics in the region's language or the composer's language. Generally,
the bandish is repeated several times, with the musician introducing variations and embellishments in
the subsequent renditions. This repetition of the bandish highlights the performer's creativity and keeps
the audience engaged in the performance and immersed in the music (Rohm, 2017, p. 30-31).
The structure of a raga performance follows a defined format, consisting of several distinct sections that
establish the mood, explore the notes of the raga, and showcase the musician's virtuosity. While the
length of a raga performance can vary greatly, establishing sections ensures a coherent and structured
musical experience for the performer and the audience.
and compositions (Rossi, 2013). Coltrane's interest in Indian classical music was also informed by his
deep interest in spirituality and Eastern philosophy. Throughout his life, he was deeply influenced by
religious and philosophical concepts such as transcendence and universal interconnectedness, which
resonated with the principles of Indian spirituality. This led him further to explore the music of India and
its philosophical underpinnings (Clements, 2009, p.155).
McLaughlin became interested in Indian classical music in the late 1960s while living in New York and
studying with renowned Indian musician Ravi Shankar. Through Shankar, McLaughlin was introduced to
the use of raga scales and the intricate rhythms of Indian classical music (Rodriguez, 2021).
McLaughlin's interest in Indian classical music and raga scales can be heard in his early work with the
Mahavishnu Orchestra, a band he formed in the early 1970s. The band's music was characterized by
complex time signatures, virtuosic improvisation, and a fusion of rock and jazz elements (Markos, 2022).
However, it was McLaughlin's use of Indian classical music, and in particular, the use of raga scales,
that set the band apart from other fusion groups of the time.
McLaughlin uses raga scales in many of his compositions, such as "Lotus Feet" (Mahavishnu Orchestra,
1976) and "Meeting of the Spirits" (Mahavishnu Orchestra, 1971). In the "Lotus Feet" piece, McLaughlin
uses traditional Indian scales to create intricate melodic lines woven together with the other instruments
in the band. The result is a unique sound that blends the improvisational techniques of jazz with the
melodic structures of Indian classical music. McLaughlin's influence on using raga scales in fusion
music has been significant. Many musicians who have worked with McLaughlin or been inspired by his
music, such as Al Di Meola and Paco de Lucia, have incorporated Indian classical music and raga
scales into their compositions (Wheatcroft, 2022).
John McLaughlin's interest in Indian classical music, particularly in raga scales, has significantly
influenced his music and the development of fusion music. His use of raga scales in his compositions
with the Mahavishnu Orchestra helped to create a unique sound that blended elements of jazz, rock,
and Indian classical music. McLaughlin's influence on the use of raga scales in fusion music has been
far-reaching and has helped to bring Indian classical music to a broader audience.
Figure 11. "John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderley, Miles Davis + Bill Evans" 1959, by Don Hunstein. (https://www.sfjazz.org/onthecorner/bill-evans-kind-blue-liner-notes/)
Tala: Tala is the rhythmic framework of Indian classical music. Each raga is typically performed
within a specific tala, defined by a particular set of rhythmic patterns and subdivisions. The
performer must maintain a consistent sense of time and rhythm throughout the performance
while also being responsive to the melodic and improvisational aspects of the raga (p. 14).
Melodic modes: Each raga has a unique set of melodic modes or scales made up of specific
sequences of notes. A particular set of rules and conventions defines the modes, such as
using specific notices in specific contexts and avoiding certain intervals (p. 15).
Improvisation: Indian classical music is characterized by extensive improvisation within the
framework of the raga. Improvisation is based on a deep understanding of the raga's melodic
modes and the ability to creatively explore and develop those modes within the performance
(p. 17).
Vadi Svara: refers to a raga's most prominent or essential note. It is also known as the "king
note" or the "tonic note" of a raga. The Vadi Svara is the note that is emphasized and
emphasized repeatedly throughout a performance, and it is typically the note around which the
melody of the raga is structured. The Vadi Svara can vary from raga to raga, an important
element that helps define a particular raga's character and mood (p. 17).
Ornamentation: Ornamentation is essential to Indian classical music, adding expressiveness
and emotion to the melodic line. Ornamentation can take many forms, including slides, trills,
and vibrato, and is used to enhance the beauty and complexity of the melody (p. 50).
John Coltrane was an influential jazz saxophonist and
composer renowned for his pioneering approach to
music. His interest in Indian classical music and raga
scales significantly influenced his innovative musical
style. Coltrane’s fascination with Indian music can
be traced back to the late 1950s, following his
exposure to the work of Indian musician Ravi Shankar
(Clements, 2009, p.157). The virtuoso’s
performances and recordings inspired Coltrane to
explore the use of non-Western scales and modes in
his music, which he integrated into his playing style
Figure 10. "John McLaughlin with a modified Gibson J-200 guitar", (n.d), by The Music Aficionado. (https://musicaficionado.blog/2016/03/02/lotus-feet-by-remember-shakti/)