A basic role of science in relation to human-environment relations is to understand human-induced environmental changes in different time dimensions. Across all dimensions, science charts changes in human-environment relations—imposing order on a dynamic web of interactions.
A first time dimensions to reconstruct past change. Scientists study past environmental change as a backdrop of current and future shifts and their impacts [48], [49]. Driftwood serves as a climate archive that scientists can analyze to reveal past climatic changes. In complex marine ecosystems, science can explain changes often only retrospectively, for instance, in the case of fish stocks [Interview 2]. Reconstruction also involves the social sphere. For example, by exploring the marine history of the Westfjords, scientists can contextualize contemporary discourses about marine cultural heritage [Interview 3].
A second time dimension is to monitor present changes. Scientists analyze data to detect and evaluate changes in the environment [50], [51]. Avalanche activity is an example where scientists, based on models and local observations, do real-time monitoring and short-term forecasting to advise which roads to close and which houses to evacuate—a huge responsibility [Interview 11]. Monitoring is also the basis for understanding what is new. The arrival of alien species, such as Atlantic rock crab and pink salmon, has raised many questions. Observing their numbers and those of potential competitors and pray can give first hints, while definite answers may emerge only in retrospect [Interview 2]. Finding answers in time might be easier where scientists monitor the effects of controllable activities with limited impacts, such as small-scale seaweed farming. In the social sphere, research can uncover the identities and ideas that guide human interactions with their environment, for instance, with the ocean as a defining landscape element and resource of the Westfjords [Interview 5].
A third time dimension is to anticipate future change. Science can project how the speed and scale of future environmental changes will develop taking into account human activity [52], [53]. An example are projections that the supply of new driftwood in Iceland will end by 2060, which makes the dimension and speed of climate-related changes in the Atlantic Ocean tangible. Another example is avalanche science, which suggests that wet avalanches will become more frequent throughout winter due to rising temperatures and changing weather patterns in the Westfjords—essential knowledge to inform measures for protection and preparedness [Interview 8, 9]. Yet, detailed anticipation often remains challenging. While scientists expect changing storm patterns at sea, uncertainties are high and fishers report both positive and negative effects on safe operations at sea. Likewise, weather extremes and changing freeze-thaw cycles make avalanches less predictable [Interview 9].
