Cuba
The history of Cuba is a diverse and intricate story influenced by indigenous populations, Spanish colonization, African enslavement, and revolutionary movements. Before Spanish arrival, Cuba was inhabited by indigenous peoples of The Caribbean. Columbus’ arrival in 1492 initiated Spanish rule, leading to the establishment of sugarcane plantations reliant on African slave labor. This period saw Cuba's cultural amalgamation of European, African, and indigenous traditions.
In the 19th century, Cuba fought for independence from Spain, eventually leading to liberation in the Spanish-American War of 1898, followed by American influence. The early 20th century saw Cuba flourish as a tourist and economic center under American influence.
However, dissatisfaction with American control and political corruption sparked Fidel Castro's revolutionary movement, toppling the Batista regime in 1959. Castro's socialist government aligned with the Soviet Union, causing tensions with the United States and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
The latter half of the 20th century was marked by economic hardship, political repression, and strained US-Cuban relations. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 exacerbated Cuba's economic woes, leading to the "Special Period" characterized by austerity measures.
Despite economic challenges, Cuba's Communist government has implemented limited economic reforms while maintaining political restrictions. Throughout its history, Cuba has demonstrated resilience and cultural richness, asserting its unique identity amidst external pressures, and shaping its place in the Caribbean and global history.
The history of Afro-Cuban music reflects the fusion of African rhythms, European melodies, and indigenous influences. Rooted deeply in the cultural heritage of Cuba, this music genre has played a significant role in shaping the island's identity and influencing musical styles worldwide. « Of particular importance in this regard are the forms known as rumba, son and danzón, which represent the consolidation of religious and secular African and European elements” (Mauleón 2005, 1).
Afro-Cuban music finds its origins in the transatlantic slave trade, which brought African captives to Cuba during the colonial period. " From the early 150os to the mid- 1800s approximately 3-5 million Africans survived the crossing to the "new world" regions." (Uribe, 1996, 15).
Yorubans (people from Nigeria) are one of the most influential African cultures in Cuba and throughout the Caribean. The Yoruba people, are renowned for their extensive cultural legacy, encompassing music, religion, and art. Their profound influence on Afro-Cuban culture, particularly in music and religious customs, has been notable over centuries. The Yoruba people also relate to the term Abakuá, this is a secretive society with distinct rituals, symbols, and music. Abakuá music includes complex rhythms, call-and-response singing, and percussion instruments such as the bata drums, congas, and claves.
As African slaves were forced to assimilate into Spanish colonial society, their musical traditions blended with European influences, such as Spanish melodies and harmonies, to create new and distinctive musical styles.
These influences highlight the dynamic and interconnected nature of Afro-Cuban music, which continues to evolve through cultural around the world.
Bongós
Two small drums attached together. One smaller than the other are played while holding them in between the knees.
Timbales
European tympani evolved into this set of tunable drums mounted on a tripod that were originally constructed from the bowls used in sugarcane processing. Cowbells and woodblocks can be added to this set also.
Instruments in Afro-Cuban music
The musical instruments introduced to and developed in Cuba represent a blend of centuries of innovation and progress. With the near obliteration of native cultures by European colonists, we could expect poor evidence of their musical influences. However, some of the instruments the African slaves popularized remain present in their culture and music.
Most of the European instruments came from Spain, France, Germany, and Italy. They consisted of Spanish folk instruments, strings, woodwinds, keyboards and percussion.
The African instruments brought to Cuba are mainly percussive. One of the most characteristic are the batá drums, “a set of sacred, two-headed drums, played in Cuba in a set of three, with the lya being the largest, the Itótele in the middle, and the small drum called the Okónkolo.” (Mauleón 2005, 25).
“These early instruments and those that were recreated over time served as the origin for the majority of the instruments that are now an integral part of Latin-American music.” (Uribe 1996, 17)
The combination of elements from the different cultures that arrived on the island brought together hybrid instruments. Immigrants and slaves wanted to recreate the instruments they already knew but materials were limited so they ended up with new creations. Some of these are:
Clave
One of the most characteristic things of Afro-Cuban music is a five note rhythmic pattern called clave. “The word clave literally means "key" in Spanish and this is precisely what the clave rhythm is—the rhythmic key and fundamental building block of all of the Afro-Cuban songstyles” (Uribe 1996, 34). It consists of a measure of two notes combined with another measure of three notes which can be played in two ways: 2-3 or 3-2. The variation of this order depends on the intention of tension and relaxation of the style. This pattern is the anchor of all polyrhythms, improvisations and melodic lines that move around it.
Congas
Cuban version of an African single-headed drum, made of a narrow barrel shaped body. Also known as Tumbadoras.
Tumbao
Rhythmic pattern played by the bass or congas in an ensemble. In a way it is related to the word marching, it gives flow and movement to the music. The basic rhythm of the bass tumbao has two accents on the upbeat to beat 2 and on the downbeat of 4.
Cuba and The Canary Islands
Cuba was a prosperous sugar colony in the 19th century and people from The Canary Islands would emigrate looking for better work opportunities in the sugar and tobacco industry.
Even though “the crash of 1929 which brought about the definitive collapse of mass migration from the Canary Islands to Cuba” (Hernández, 2005, 98), the cultural connections between both territories provide evidence of centuries of interaction, migration, and exchange that significantly influenced the identities and traditions. These relationships maintain their influence on current society. Vibrant music and dance traditions with roots in African, European, and indigenous influences can be found in both Cuba and the Canary Islands. Cuban and Canarian music shares elements such as rhythm, percussion, and dance techniques.
The aim of collecting this information is to demonstrate the connection between Canarian and Cuban culture. This explains why even though I was not born in Cuba, I find connections with Afro-Cuban music.
Salsa
Salsa serves as a general label that covers diverse rhythmic styles and instrumentations stemming from Cuban, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and other origins, all organized around the rhythmic structure known as clave. What sets apart salsa rhythms is the presence and strict adherence to this rhythmic pattern, which is maintained by salsa performers and arrangers.
Ensembles in traditional Afro-Cuban music
Through time the number of instruments and styles which musicians would play evolved. Some of the most important ensembles that were formed in Cuba are the following:
- Comparsa. This ensemble played in the streets during the carnival tradition in Cuba. Congas, bombos, cowbells, frying pans, and trumpets were used for this.
- Charanguita. During parties in the countryside, this group would take part with an accordion, timbales, and güiro.
- Coro de Clave. Performing in streets since the 1800s, a choir accompanied by a stringless viola used as a drum, guitars, and claves would sing Spanish melodies.
- Rumba. A choir that would sing in the streets from the beginning of the 1900s with congas, shakers, and spoons or sticks that beat on the side of the congas or on woodblocks.
- Orquesta Típica. This ensemble would play the Contradanza with two clarinets, two horns, one trumpet, two violins, one contrabass, güiro tympani, and drums in the 1800s but evolved and in the 1900s they replaced tympani for timbales and reduced de horn section.
- Charanga Francesa. Emerged in the early 1900s with only a wood flute, two violins, a piano, a contrabass, timbales, and güiro. Years later the conga was added.
- Trío. Three singers would sing along with maracas and guitar. Developed in the 1920s.
- Sexteto. The Sexteto Habanero introduced the six-member group with strings and percussion instruments.
- Septeto. The Septeto Nacional started being a sextet but added a trumpet in 1927.
- Conjunto. The ensembles continued growing around 1940. More trumpets, a piano, singers, and percussion instruments were added.
- Combo. Trumpet, saxophone, piano, congas, bass, and drums formed this ensemble in the 1950s. Instrumentation could change but the group would not be much bigger than this because they would play in smaller clubs.
Contradanza and Danza
“The nineteenth century can in many respects be characterized as the era of the contradance and quadrille” (Peter 2011, 1). Influenced by English Country Dancing and accepted at the French court, the contradanza is a popular music and dance form that originated in Spain or Spanish America in the 18th century. After being brought to America, it played a significant role in Cuba throughout the 19th century, emerging as the first composed music based on African rhythms and the first internationally recognized Cuban dance. The contradanza contributed to the popular Habanera song and paved the way for other genres. This genre was referred to as Danza de La Habana or Habanera outside of Cuba; the island also adopted this name once it gained international recognition in the late 19th century.
“For almost 30 years the Contradanza reigned, which gave way to the Danza, with a musical form identical to its predecessor, but with an extraordinary rhythmic and melodic beauty, as well as choreographic beauty.” (Lamerán 2001, 2). Even though it is complicated to recreate their choreographies, the main difference we can find between contradanza and Danza is the actual dance form. In the first case, they would form a quadrille, with two pairs of dancers, and in the second case, they would dance in separate pairs. The musical features are also quite enigmatic for us “Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the existence of notated scores, from “San Pascual Bailón”, together with other contemporary descriptions afford us a vision of colonial musical practice in many ways clearer than can be obtained regarding dance.” (Peter 2011, 67) San Pascual Bailón, of unknown authorship, is the first contradanza there is record from.
Suggestion to listen: San Pascual Bailón, unknown.
Mambo
Mambo emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as a more syncopated approach to playing the danzón. It was known as Danzón-Mambo, and when it was adopted by the big bands of the 1940s, the Danzón section was omitted.
Suggestion to listen: Manteca, Chano Pozo and Dizzy Gillespie.
Son montuno
Arsenio Rodriguez was one of the great musicians who made this style so popular. Son montuno is characterised by the repetition of the chorus and the intensity with which it is played. Improvisation by solo musicians also plays a fundamental role in Son montuno.
Suggestion to listen: Dile a Catalina, Arsenio Rodríguez.
Danzón
Around 1879, the Danzón arrived on the scene and slowly took over the danza. Las Alturas de Simpson, by the composer Miguel Faílde, is the first Danzón we know of. The danzón differs from the danza mainly in its rondo-like form, the prominent use of quintuplets in the melody and accompaniment, and the independent dance of the couple. The instrumentation used in this style is known as charanga and consists of a flute, strings and a rhythm section.
Suggestion to listen: Almendra, Abelardo Valdés.
Son
This style became popular in Cuba in the 19th century. The combination of Spanish and African elements developed this dance music of the working class. It is the root of today's popular salsa music.
Suggestion to listen: El Manisero, Moisés Simons.
Montuno
Open vamp section of a song, which features the call and response singing and instrumental solos. It is also used to describe a repetitive rhythm played by the piano throughout the song.
Guajira
A melodious and ornate song structure influenced by the Cuban son and incorporating elements of the Canción form.
Suggestion to listen: Guantanamera, Celia Cruz
Guaracha
Originally a type of música campesina (peasant or rural music) that evolved from street music, traditionally characterised by satirical lyrics. Today it is typically associated with melodies of moderate tempo.
Suggestion to listen: Que Humanidad, Eliades Ochoa.
Guaguancó
There are three styles of rumba: Yambú, Guaguancó and Columbia. It is a secular Cuban folklore form, consisting of percussion, dance and response singing, with both African and Spanish roots.
Suggestion to listen: Obsesión, Conjunto libre.
Chachachá
A rhythmic genre derived from the early Cuban Danzón-Mambo, invented by violinist Enrique Jorín, who named it after the scraping sounds of dancers' feet. The Chachachá eventually developed into a musical style in its own right, separate from the Danzón.
Suggestion to listen: Oye cómo va, Tito Puente.
Changüí
A forerunner of the Cuban son, characterised by an instrumentation that includes the tres (a six-stringed chordophone of Cuban origin, developed from the Spanish guitar), bongos, güiro, maracas and the marímbula (an instrument made up of a series of metal plates attached to a resonance box that produces sound when played).
Suggestion to listen: Changüí Campanero, Elito Revé y su Charanga.