Mindfulness
In the musical field, there are several studies investigating how mindfulness training could result in lower or more manageable levels of performance anxiety (Chang et al., 2003; Czajkowski et al., 2020; Díaz, 2018; Farnsworth-Godd & Cameron, 2013; Rodriquez-Carvajal et al., 2017) and improved levels of quality of musical performance (Juncos et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2008). On the other hand, there is a dearth of studies investigating the application of mindfulness during musical practice. Even though it has been presented as a theoretically beneficial and promising tool, the potential of mindfulness to benefit musicians' daily practice, specifically their ability to focus and be in the moment, remains in question. Nevertheless, in recent years, several investigations have managed to shed light on previous theoretical accounts of mindfulness during musical practice (Hribar, 2012; Brown, 2020; Czajkowski, 2018; Czajkowski, 2020; Czakowski & Greasley, 2015; Diaz et al., 2020).
Mindfulness and music-performance anxiety (MPA)
In the last 20 years, several authors have evidenced the benefits of mindfulness as a tool for coping with musical performance anxiety (Chang et al. 2003; Farnsworth- Grodd & Cameron, 2013; Díaz, 2018; Rodríguez-Carvajalet al., 2017).
Chang et al. (2003) demonstrated how Zen meditation (Chan) reduced anxiety (p < .05), and improved focus of attention in 19 college music students. Meditation seemed to help participants gain focus on activities in and outside the musical realm. Seemingly, Farnsworth- Grodd & Cameron (2013) found that students with higher trait mindfulness coped better with thoughts and emotions related to performance anxiety. At the time of performing, the relationship between mindfulness and performance anxiety was partially mediated through a greater focus on the positive aspects (emotion, inspiration) of the performance (p < .001) as well as greater kindness and self-acceptance of mistakes and fear of negative evaluation (p < .001). Rodríguez-Carvajal et al. (2017) confirmed these findings and demonstrated that dispositional mindfulness had positive effects on self-consciousness and negative affect in 151 music students. Specifically, results showed that the more trait mindfulness a person has, the less performance anxiety phenomena will occur due to negative affect (p < .01). Thus, mindfulness could be interpreted as a coping skill to block or decrease the effects of negative affect on performance anxiety. Regarding self-awareness, it seems that the more aware a person is at a dispositional level, the weaker the association between their self-awareness (SC) and performance anxiety (p < .01). Likewise, Diaz (2018) discovered that higher levels of trait mindfulness could predict lower levels of performance anxiety (p < .01). Seemingly, it was found that meditating frequently could alleviate the levels of anxiety in music students with high levels of perfectionism (p < .05).
Even though these studies show promising results regarding the effect of mindfulness on the treatment of MPA, studies based on mindfulness intervention programs (Chang et al., 2003; Czajkowski et al., 2020) are inconclusive, presenting limitations such as a short period of training time, a sample of reduced participants and imprecise follow-up of meditation training. Seemingly, despite yielding promising results in terms of the positive effect of mindfulness in anxiety management, most studies rely on retrospective measures to examine how the dispositional level of mindfulness would affect participants' anxiety, rather than interventions that would allow the examination of the effect of mindfulness training in natural contexts.
Mindfulness, MPA, and performance quality
In a pilot study, Juncos et al. (2017) applied the ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy) to seven singers from the Westminster Choir College of Rider University. Performance quality showed positive but colliding results, with low inter-judge reliability. On the other hand, participants improved in copying with shame during the performance (p < .01). In addition, reductions in students' post-treatment anxiety were observed (p < .05). In another study, Lin et al. (2008) corroborated the potential of mindfulness to improve performance quality. Specifically, they examined the effects of Chan (Zen) meditation on performance anxiety (Chang et al., 2003) and performance quality in nineteen musicians. Results indicated a decrease in performance anxiety associated with meditation (p < .05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the performance quality between the meditation and control groups. However, regarding the relationship between performance quality and performance anxiety, performance quality was negatively correlated with state anxiety in the control group and not in the meditation group. That is, in the control group, subjective anxiety was associated with a decrease in performance quality, while in the meditation group, the two variables were not correlated. Hence, it may possible that participants may benefit from mindfulness when coping with anxiety to achieve a higher level of musical performance.
Since these studies investigating the effects of mindfulness on performance quality are featured small sample sizes (Juncos et al., 2017, Lin et al., 2008) and no control group (Juncos et al., 2017) and, thus, it is yet not possible to generalize about the efficacy of mindfulness in improving performance quality.